THEATER / DRAMA - 5000 YEARS HISTORY OF INDIAN THEATRE
“NATYA SHASTRA”BY “BHARATA MUNI”IS
THE OLDEST EVIDENCE OF INDIAN ARTS AND THEATRE
The Natya Shastra is the oldest surviving text on stagecraft in the world. It is believed to have been written by Bharata Muni between 200 AD and 200 BC. However there are scholars who believe that it may have been written by various authors at different times.The text is written in the Sanskrit language, and consists of 6,000 sutras, or verse stanzas, incorporated in 36 chapters. There are some passages that are composed in a prose form.Ten types of drama, ranging from one to ten acts, are described. The Natya Shastra, wide in its scope, covers stage-design, music, dance, makeup, and virtually every aspect of stagecraft. Bharata refers to bhavas and rasas, and stipulates that the plays should have a mingling of rasas and not be dominated by a single one.As the only text which gives all details about the music and instruments of the earlier period, Natya Shastra is of great relevance to musicians as well.
THE SANSKRIT TIMELINE & DRAMA
Nearly all Sanskrit literature, except that dealing with grammar and philosophy, is in verse. The first period (c.500–c.50 B.C.) of the Sanskrit age is one of epics. They are divided into two main groupings—the natural epics, i.e., those derived from old stories, and those which come from artificial epics called kavya. The oldest and most representative of the natural school is the Mahabharata (məhä'bär`ətə), classical Sanskrit epic of India, probably composed between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200, while the oldest and best-known of the artificial epics is the Ramayana (rämä`yənə) [story of Rama], classical Sanskrit epic of India, probably composed in the 3d cent. B.C. The Puranas, a group of 18 epics, didactic and sectarian in tone, are a direct offshoot of the Mahabharata.In the court epics (c.200 B.C.–c.A.D. 1100), most of which were derived from the Ramayana, subject matter gradually became subordinated to form, and elaborate laws were set up to regulate style. The lyric poems are artificial in technique and mainly stanzaic. The most common form, the sloka, developed from the Vedic anushtubh, a stanza of four octosyllabic lines. Part of the lyric poetry is comprised of gemlike miniatures, portraying emotion and describing nature; most of it is erotic. However, many lyrics are ethical in tone. These reflect the doctrine of the transmigration of souls or metempsychosis (mətĕm'səkō`sĭs) in a prevailing melancholy tone and stress the vanity of human life.
Sanskrit drama (c.A.D. 400–A.D. 1100) had its beginnings in those hymns of the Rig-Veda which contain dialogues. Staged drama probably derives from the dance and from religious ceremonial. It is characterized by the complete absence of tragedy; death never occurs on the stage. Other typical features are the alternation of lyrical stanzas with prose dialogue and the use of Sanskrit for some characters and Prakrit for others ( Prakrit literature. By the 6th cent. B.C. the people of India were speaking and writing languages that were much simpler than classical Sanskrit. These vernacular forms, of which there were several, are called the Prakrits [Skt.,=natural].
In Sanskrit drama the stories are borrowed from legend, and love is the usual theme. The play almost always opens with a prayer and is followed by a dialogue between the stage manager and one of the actors, referring to the author and the play. There were no theaters, so the plays were performed in the concert rooms of palaces. The most famous drama was the Sakuntalam Kalidasa (kä'lĭdä`sə), fl. 5th cent.?, Indian dramatist and poet.Other major dramatists were Bhasa, Harsa, and Bhavabhuti ( Asian drama, dramatic works produced in the East. Of the three major Asian dramas—Sanskrit, Chinese, Japanese—the oldest is Sanskrit, although the dates of its origin are uncertain.
There is a didactic quality in all of Sanskrit literature, but it is most pronounced in fairy tales and fables (c.A.D. 400–A.D. 1100). Characteristically, different stories are inserted within the framework of a single narration. The characters of the tale themselves tell stories until there are many levels to the narrative. The Panchatantra (pŭn'chətŭn`trə) is the most important work in this style. The sententious element reached its height in the Hitopadesa, which was derived from the Panchatantra.
SANSKRIT PLAYWRIGHT
The earliest available Sanskrit plays are the thirteen ascribed to Bhasa. None of them states explicitly either in the prologue or the colophon. These are the usual conventions in Sanskrit drama. These are Bhasa`s work. In fact, their discovery and attribution to him at the beginning of the twentieth century created a controversy. However, striking thematic and technical similarities in them and the certain identification of Swapna-Vasavadatta i.e. `Vasavadatta in the Dream` with Bhasa, established their authorship. The plays embrace tales derived from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Krishna lore, popular history, and love stories. They are marked by significant possibilities of performatory elaboration, as evident to this day from their presence in the traditional repertoire of Kutiyattam. Kalidasa was the greatest Indian dramatist. He drew inspiration from Bhasa, but himself became the paramount influence on future generations. Regarded as the supreme poet of love with the highest possible refinement and insight, he attained the culmination of genius in the world-renowned Abhijnana-Sakuntala. If Bhasa sometimes appears to rebel against the conventions lay down by Bharata, Kalidasa offers the model of the Natyashastric tradition of playwriting.
Music was an integral part of theatre. This becomes prominent in order to provide pleasure in the recitation of the text. Bharata, Kalidasa, and some later dramatists speak of the employment of dhruva songs. Certainly, musical integration began with the introduction oigita or song and atodya or music. This served not only to determine the pace and rhythm of movement, gait, exits, and entrances, but also to incorporate lasyangas into the play. The change in Sanskrit theatre from rupakas to uparupakas is marked by the increasing use of music. The tendency was already present in the period of Kalidasa and Harivamsa, and gathered momentum with the passage of time. Music became more essential and uparupakas were often called sangitakas i.e. `song works`. Dance, too, acquired a more dominant place in the dramatic and theatrical structure. References in Abhinavagupta`s Abhinavabharati, Saradatanaya`s Bhavaprakasana and other texts verify this conclusion. The connection between `folk` forms and Sanskrit performance is also old. The detailed stage direction in Kalidasa`s Vikramorvasiya i.e. `Urvasi Won by Valour` was a unique play from this point of view. This reveals extensive employment of music and dance in production. Many of the terms are not traceable either to the Natyashastra or later treatises. They appear to have been taken from the popular theatre of the early medieval age, and prove that Kalidasa`s script had an unbroken tradition of performance up to that period.
Influence on Sanskrit theatre
Asvaghosha, a Buddhist author adorning the court of Kanishka represents another ideology in Sanskrit drama. From available fragments of his work, it can be gathered that his subject matter was conversion to Buddhism, Sudraka in Mricchakatika achieves astonishing heights of treatment given to contemporary social realities. His vibrant masterpiece offers a refreshing and subversive notion of love between a generous but poor Brahman and a delicate courtesan inspired by romantic ideals. In the background a cruel ruler, the struggling common people, the air of revolt, gamblers, monks, helpless judiciary, and prevailing fraud can be seen. On the other hand, Visakhadatta derived material from history in Mudra-Rakshasa i.e. `Rakshasa`s Signet Ring`. This is an unusual play of political intrigue between Chandragupta Maurya`s minister Kautilya and Rakshasa i.e. the minister of the ousted king. The three plays of Harsha have been said to reveal Buddhist compassion and introduce models of romantic drama neatly structured in keeping with the plot technique taught in the Natyashastra. In addition, traces of folk music and dance in his Ratnavali mark the beginning of a new era in Sanskrit theatre. Bhatta Narayana develops the tragic character of Asvatthama in Venisamhara i.e. `Tying of the Braid`. This was based on the story in the Mahabharata. The powerful Bhavabhuti during seventh to eighth century is often considered Kalidasa`s equal, and his play Uttara-Ramacarita i.e. `Rama`s Later Exploits` also contains strong evocation of karuna rasa or pathos. Replete with epic qualities, it presents life in diverse dimensions.
BOUNDRIES OF SANSKRIT THEATRE
The Sanskrit plays were limited by certain conventions. Tragedy was taboo and the end was always happy. There was no place for plays that raised controversies (although Bhasa had shown death on the stage in one of his plays). The basic plot in most Sanskrit plays centre around the hero who struggles for (and finally obtains) the object of his desire. The realisation of this goal in closely entwined with the three ends of Hindu life - duty, pleasure and wealth. Thus there was an opening, progression, development, pause and conclusion. Unlike French and German neo-classical plays, both time and place were flexible.Within these parameters however, it appears that most playwrights found enough space for exerting their individualistic creative expression.
Sanskrit plays commenced with an elaborate ritual. Some twenty pre-play ceremonies (purva-ranga) of music and dance were performed, nine of them behind the curtain. The Sutradhara (he was the director, the chief actor and the stage manager), clad in immaculate white, entered with his two assistants and offered worship (Puja) to the presiding deity of the theatre to ensure success to the producer and good luck to the actors. After this the Sutradhara summoned the leading actress and opened the play with a prologue which announced the time and place of the play and introduced the playwright.
The theatre halls were carefully constructed and decorated according to traditional rules of architecture.A theatre of medium size, according to Bharata, could accommodate 400 spectators.Some of the stages had two storeys, the upper storey being for the representation of action in the celestial sphere and the ground storey for that in the terrestrial sphere.Masks were not used, and the subtlest interplay of emotions was conveyed through facial expressions, gestures and speech. The adroit employment of the curtain made for heightened impact. The choice of themes covered a wide range and the treatment of the theme also varied greatly. Skits, comedies and intense melodramas were all written and presented.The absence of scenic effects was made up by a versatile histrionic technique.
Sanskrit theatre was characterised by its high degree of refinement in performance technique. It followed well-articulated, aesthetic principles, usually those laid out in the ancient dramatics texts. It depended on a high degree of audience knowledge and expertise i.e., only the refined sensibility could appreciate it. Religion played an important role in drama as certain rituals accompanied most plays, and even the stage was consecrated before a performance. Thus the Sanskrit drama could be called an amalgamation of the religious, educational and entertaining elements or in whole we can say ,Sanskrit theatre was holistic, consisting of a highly evolved text, pre-written as well as orally circulating among the community of artists. The rediscovery of the Natyashastra and Bhasa excited scholars and artists in Sanskrit dramatic performance, nearly extinct in the twentieth century.
FOLK THEATRE IN INDIA
This was the second phase of the evolution of theatre in India, which was based on oral traditions. This form of theatre was being performed from about 950 AD onwards up to 1700 AD and continued further until today in almost every part of India. Emergence of this kind of theatre is linked with the change of political set up in India as well as the coming into existence of different regional languages in all parts of the country. The classical theatre was based on Natya Shastra was much more sophisticated in its form and nature and totally urban-oriented. On the contrary, the traditional theatre evolved out of rural roots and was more simple, immediate and closer to the rural milieu.
Historically speaking, it was during the 14.5-16 century that the folk theatre emerged forcefully in different regions. It used different languages, the languages of the regions in which it emerged. Initially these were purely devotional in tenor and typically revolved around religion, local legends and mythology. Later, with changing times it became more secular in content and began to focus on folk stories of romance and valour and biographical accounts of local heroes.
Indian folk theatre can be broadly divided into two broad categories -- religious and secular -- giving rise to the Ritual Theatre and Theatre of Entertainment respectively. The two forms thrived together, mutually influencing each other. Although they are considered as Folk theatre traditions, some of them have all the attributes of a classical theatre.Most often the folk and traditional forms are mainly narrative or vocal, i.e. singing and recitation-based like Ramlila, Rasleela, Bhand Nautanki and Wang, without any complicated gestures or movements and elements of dance. India is also rich in ballad-singing traditions such as Pabuji-ki-phar of Rajastan and Nupipaalaa of Manipur.
While most of these theatrical styles have their own unique form dependent on their local customs, they differ from one another in execution, staging, costume, make-up and acting style, although there are some broad similarities. The south Indian forms emphasise on dance forms like Kathakali and Krishnattam of Kerala and actually qualify as dance dramas, while the north Indian forms emphasise on songs, like the Khyal of Rajasthan, the Maach of Madhya Pradesh, the Nautanki of Uttar Pradesh and the Swang of Punjab. The Jatra of Bengal, Tamasha of Maharashtra and the Bhavai of Gujarat stress on dialogues in their execution, the latter two emphasise on comedy and satire. Puppet theatre also flourished at many places in India. Shadow (Gombeyatta of Karnataka, Ravana Chhaya of Orissa), Glove (Gopalila of Orissa, Pavai Koothu of Tamil Nadu), Doll (Bommalattam of Tamil Nadu and the Mysore State and Putul Nautch of Bengal) and string puppets (Kathputli of Rajasthan and Sakhi Kundhei of Orissa) are some of the popular forms in vogue.
Dramatic art can also be found in some of the solo forms of Indian classical dance, like Bharat Natyam, Kathak, Odissi and Mohiniattam, and folk dances like the Gambhira and Purulia Chhau of Bengal, Seraikella Chhau of Bihar and Mayurbhanj Chhau of Orissa. Dramatic content is even woven into the ritual ceremonies in some areas, particularly those of Kerala, with its Mudiyettu and Teyyam.
THEATRE OF ENTERTAINMENT
This form of folk theatre has secular themes ranging from romance, love and valour to social and cultural traditions. Its sole purpose was to provide entertainment for the masses. Nautanki, Tamasha and Jatra are some examples.
Bhavai : Bhavai is the popular folk theatrical form of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The pioneer of Bhavai was a Brahmin known as Asait Thakore or Ashram Maharaja, who lived in a village of Gujarat called Unjha. Initially, the Bhavai performance was presented as a religious ritual to propitiate the Goddess Amba and it took place only during the religious festivals of Navratra. Very soon it got converted as an important form of the theatre of entertainment. The Bhavai has a series of playlets known as Vesha or Swanga. Each Vesha has its own plot and locale. There need not be any continuity of homogeneity among them. The Veshas has four broad category of themes i.e. mythological, social, royal Rajput and contemporary. The Veshas of Krishna and Gopi, the Veshas Zanda-Zulana and Chhela-Vatau, the Vesha of Ramdev and the Veshas of Vanazaro and Purabio are examples of each of these categories. Asait Thakore wrote over 360 Veshas. The music is a combination of classical tunes rendered in folk style. The musical instruments used are Bhungala, Jhanjha and Tabla. Dancing is an indispensable feature of the plays and has its own style, which is quite different from other dances of Gujarat. The dance, which is a combination of Rasa and Garba with traces of Kathak, is used as a connecting link between Veshas and also between different incidents within one Vesha. The performers are called Bhavayas. Till the 20th century the men played female roles. The Sutradhara or anchor of the Bhavai is known as Nayaka who sings, acts and directs. He is also the producer of the performance. As a folk dramatic form, Bhavai is specially known for its social plays, which are full of humour. It is not merely a theatre form to be seen, but an atmosphere to be experienced with the players themselves. The Bhavai of Rajasthan is more musical and less theatrical when compared to that of Gujarat.
Daskathia and Chhaiti Ghoda: Daskathia is one of the several narrative forms that flourished in Orissa. It is a performance in which a devotee narrates a story dramatically to the accompaniment of a wooden musical instrument called kathia. This is a performance of two narrators, Gayaka (chief singer) and Palia (assistant) who is the co-narrator. The Chhaiti Ghoda troupe of performers comprises of two players on the musical instruments dhol and mohuri and three other characters. A dummy horse is improvised out of bamboo and cloth and the dancer enters into the hollow body and dances, while the main singer along with co-singer delivers discourses, mainly from mythology.
Gondhal: In Maharashtra, the dramatic narration of mythological stories, hero-lauds and folk legends form a part of a ritual dedicated to various deities. This interesting ritual with its narrative performance has deeply influenced the dramatic and narrative traditions in Maharashtra and its neighbouring regions.
Garodas: In Gujarat the members of the Garoda community practice the art of narrating stories with the help of painted pictures. It is performed with a paper scroll with pictures painted in water-colours one below the other and separated with a thick black line.
Jatra (Yatra): The popular folk drama form of Eastern India is the Yatra or Jatra, as it is known in Bengal. It assumes different forms in different regions within the eastern parts of India, which include mainly the states of Assam, West Bengal and Orissa. Yatra literally means a procession or a pilgrimage from one point to another. It is generally an open-air performance. Jatra originated in Bengal as a ritual theatre devoted mainly on themes relating to the life of Lord Krishna. The illustrious Vaishnava saint and religious performer Chaitanya used the medium of Jatra to propagate his teachings of Krishna by inspiring his devotees to participate in communal singing and dancing. Apart from the exploits of Krishna, the Jatras dramatised the Puranic legends, folk-tales and episodes from Ramayana and Mahabharata. In West Bengal, famous playwrights or palas attempted to bring structural perfection to the Jatra. These palas were called by various names like Rama Jatra, Shiva Jatra and Chandi Jatra. Later Jatra adopted more secular themes and historical romances, love stories and even patriotic themes during the freedom struggle were added to the repertoire. The most famous was Bidya Sundar, which started a new trend in Jatra. In Orissa, a unique form of Yatra known as Sahi Yatra is performed in the by-lanes of Puri as a kind of street theatre. Jatra today is one of the most popular folk theatres in India. West Bengal alone has to its credit 300 Jatra companies, and Jatra competitions are held during the Durga Puja festival.
Kariyila: This is the most interesting and popular folk drama form of Himachal Pradesh. It is most popular in the districts of Shimla, Solan and Sirmour. The season of Kariyala generally starts after the festival of Deepavali. Kariyala is an open-air theatre, which consists of an entertaining series of small playlets, farces, skits, revues and burlesques. It is generally staged during village fairs and on some festive occasions. The Kariyala entertainment starts in the evening and goes on throughout the night staging various popular items one after other. The square-performing arena is called Khada. In the centre of Khada, a bonfire is lit which is considered very sacred. A number of musical instruments like chimta, nagara, karnal, ranasingha, shahanai, basuri, dholak and khanjiri are used to provide background music.
Keertan: Keertan is the most popular narrative form which is prevalent in almost all parts of the country under different names such as Katha Kalakshepam and Harikatha. Keertan means to laud, extol, exalt, worshipping of the deity by chanting his praises and celebrating the praises of god with music and singing.
Khyal: It is a popular folk dramatic form of Rajasthan and is full of dancing, singing and music. Khyal has assumed different names in different regions of Rajasthan. It is also known as Tamasha, Rammat, Nautanki, Maach and Swang.
Maanch:
Maanch is an enchanting folk opera of Malwa region in the state of Madhya Pradesh. It evolved about two centuries ago in Ujjain. The themes are usually based on mythological events or romantic folk tales.
Nachya: It is an interesting folk theatre form of Madhya Pradesh, the urbanised version of which reached the metropolitan centres and became quite popular. The play begins with an invocation song sung in honour of Lord Ganesha, Saraswati and other deities venerated by the local folk. There are two types of Nachya theatre. One is the humorous Gammat Skit and the other one is the Jokkad Pari performance.
Nautanki: Nautanki is an offshoot of the Swang or Sang. It is very popular in Haryana and other parts of North India.
Oja-Pali: Oja-Pali of Assam is a very interesting form of story telling which utilises many dramatic techniques to illustrate the narrative and enhance its visual impact. This art form is associated with the worship of Manasa, the serpent goddess of Assam. The performers take many days to narrate the story, which is divided into three parts: Deva Khanda, Baniya Khanda and Bhatiyali Khanda. The Oja is the main narrator-singer and the Palis are his associates or members of his chorus. There is yet another type of Oja-Pali parties in Assam, known as the Vyah-Gowa Oja-Pali, which narrates stories from the Assamese version of Puranas and the epics.
Pandavani:It is a form of story telling evolved by the tribals of the Chhatisgarh region of Madhya Pradesh to amuse and instruct the people. This narrative form was developed to tell the story of the five Pandava brothers and considered to be of two types - Kapilak and Vedamati. A team of Pandavani performers is composed of one main narrator-singer, one or two co-singers, who also play on musical instruments like tabla and harmonium. Pandavani is a performance of a story, which did not quite develop into a regular dramatic form.
Picture Showmen: The Picture Showman in ancient India was known as Mankha, and this art of narrating the story with the help of pictures was known as Mankha Vidha. This art dates back to 6th century BC.
Powada: In Maharashtra the narrative hero-laud is called Powada. The first available Powada in Marathi was written on the thrilling episode of Shivaji killing his adversary Afzal Khan. The tradition of Powada singing was kept alive by the folk singers of Maharashtra known as Gondhalis and Shahirs. The Powada is presented in a most dramatic manner. High pitch singing and melodramatic acting is its soul.
Swang: The major theatrical tradition of folk entertainment in North India, especially Haryana, is that of Swang. It is a musical folk drama which enacts near similar stories in all its related regional variations. These stories are in verse and are sung in different classical, semi-classical but mostly in popular folk musical modes. A number of musical instruments like the ektara, dholak, kharta, sarangi and harmonium put flavour to the dialogues. Ali Baksh of Rewari, who is regarded as 'the father of folk theatre in Haryana', is the pioneer of the Swang tradition. Pandit Deep Chand, known as the "Kalidasa of Haryana", modified and polished Ali Baksh style of folk theatre. Other luminaries of Swang include Swami Har Dev, Qutabi, Dhoom, Pandit Bhartu and Pandit Lakshmi Chand.
Tamasha: Tamasha evolved itself from the earlier forms of folk entertainment in Maharashtra. It is known for its humour and erotic singing and dancing. It is one of the rare folk theatre forms of India in which women play the feminine roles. Naughty episodes of Krishna Leela are invariably enacted in the opening part of a Tamasha play. The Lavani songs, which are sung along with dancing, are delightfully naughty and erotic.
Villu Pattu: Villu Pattu literally means bow-song. This form of recitation (using a bow-shaped musical instrument) of Tamil Nadu developed in the 15th century. There are seven to eight persons in a bow-song party who form a kind of chorus that supports the main singer-narrator. The stories from Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas are told in these ballad style songs.
Modern Theatre of India
Modern Theatre in India is fighting with rural and cultural values. In India , Modern theatre is run by educated and well trained drama experts but they carry their old rural tradition with them because most of them belong to rural land . that’s why some time it looks great and others very imatuare. So called Modern theatre was created by & primarily for the middle class & upper middle class of urban society. The plays run the gamut from serious to comic, political to frivolous . Modern Theatre in India owes its origin to development of large urban centers such as Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay (Mumbai) & Madras(Chennai).Nowadays most of the metro cities have adopted this modern theatre style of presentation. Modern theatre also entertains English literature in a big way. the elite audiences of this taste always like to see these texts.The modern theatre of today boasts a number of unique characteristics , including commercial ventures, various grades and qualities of amateur work, limited attempts at experimentation, & determined effort to establish and sustain school and college theatre programs.
AMATEUR
Most of India's modern theatre may be categorized as amateur; that is theatre in which majority of those who participate do so with little expectation of earning a living. Theatre organisations are either autonomous bodies or they are a part of larger cultural organisations.. The Indian National Theatre is a cosmopolitan theatre organization sponsoring theatre productions in Marathi , Gujrati, Hindi & English. One of the largest running plays in the history of Bombay theatre has been the Gujrati version of Pygmalion called Punarani. Hindi theatre has much smaller base , but some of the nationally known personalities have tried to nurture the Hindi theatre . Prithiviraj Raj , famous film actor was a pioneer through his Prithvi Theatre in nurturing Hindi theatre . Ebrahim Alkazi organized Theatre Group in 1953. English Theatre in Bombay has a long & impressive history. Alyquee Padmsee is one of the leading directors of English theatre & believes that with increasing number of English speaking people there is now a greater demand.For a city of its size Delhi has little amateur theatre. There are more groups of Punjabi & Hindi , since there are large number of people speaking these two North Indian Languages.
Experimental Theatre in India
Experimental theatre in India may be considered a branch of the amateur theatre , but in some instances the objectives of the groups and their approach to producing plays are quite different from that of the general run of amateur groups . Calcutta has the reputation of being the foremost center of experimental theatre in the country.Few Famous directors like Ebrahim Alkazi, Girish Karnard, Utpal Dutt, B.V. Karnath, Robin Das, Berry John, Prasanna, Badal Sircar , Bansi Kaul, M.K. Raina , Habib Tanvir, etc are the unofficial leader of experimental theatre in India. The playwright Mohan Rakesh, till his death in 1972 ran an experimental workshop in New Delhi which attempted to break new ground for the production of unconventional, nonrealistic plays in Hindi. His group of enthusiastic young people attempted to develop productions with a focus on physical movement, gesture & sounds rather than be ruled by the dictates of the script. Unlike the lines which are clearly drawn in Calcutta & Mumbai between amateur theatre & the experimental theatre , it is more difficult in to make the distinction in Delhi. As the capital of the country, Delhi audiences have been privileged to witness a host of performances of traditional rural theatre , often presented in quasi- authentic settings, as well as tours by theatre groups from around the world. In this respect, unique theatre which stresses unconventional means of production has found its way into the theatre life of the capital
Play Writting
In the modern Western Theatre , the text usually serves as the guide to the production concept. Modern Indian theatre is similar to Western theatre in this respect, it depends on the creative interpretation of the play script . It usually requires a working combination of playwrights, directors & actors to produce modern theatre. Realism seems to dominate the settings & dialogue of most plays. Many playwrights today are writing few great texts, like we have recently seen a play written by Rajan Tiwari named” EK BUDHA DIN” at jaipur ,was full of experiments and great challenge of text for an actor. Some of other playwrights also, who have created a niche for themselves in the Indian theatre in past ,are Utpal Dutt, Girish Karnard, Badal Sircar , Vijay Tendulkar, C.L. Jos, N.N. Pillai etc.
ASSENTIAL ELEMENTS / COLORS IN INDIAN DRAMA
Drama on stage often reflects the drama of everyday life, but it also concentrates life, focuses it, and holds it up for examination. Aristotle outlined some elements of drama in his critical analysis of the classical Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex written by the Greek playwright, Sophocles, in the 5th century B.C. The elements involve: Thought, Theme, Ideas; Action or Plot; Characters; Language; Music; and Spectacle. Since plays are written with the intention of performance, the reader of the play must use her imagination to enact the play as she reads it.
Readers of the play need to imagine not just feelings or a flow of action, but how the action and the characters look in a theatre, on a stage, before a live audience. Thus, there are many elements that make up a drama. Right from the theme, plot of the play, till the costumes, dramatic representation to the audience that actually makes the drama a success by viewing it! Thus, let us study the elements that encompass the making of a drama.
Theme
It refers to what the play means as opposed to what happens (plot) or it refers to the main idea/ though/ theme within the play. Sometimes the theme is clearly stated in the title. It may be stated through dialogue by a character acting as the playwright`s voice. Or it may be the theme is less obvious and emerges only after some study or thought. The abstract issues and feelings that grow out of the dramatic action.
Plot
It refers to the order of the events that happen in a play. In actuality it refers to what happens rather than what it means. The plot is usually structured with acts and scenes and the action and movement in the play begins from the initial entanglement, through rising action, climax, and falling action to resolution. The interest generated by the plot varies for different kinds of plays. The plot of the drama is shown in the `through-line` of the drama - its beginning, middle and end - although it does not have to be presented in a linear structure. The characters in a play are also part of the plot. The action of the drama consists in the events that the characters take part in as they act the play. The content of the drama lies in the themes it deals with, example bullying, the responsibilities of power and the bravery of ordinary people.
Audience
Theatre requires an audience, since live audience also has an important impact on the way plays are created. The physical presence of an audience can change a performance, inspire actors, and create expectations. The presence of live actors on the stage in front of live audiences sets it apart from modern day films and television. The presence of live actors on the stage in front of live audiences sets it apart from modern day films and television. Hence, authors calculate for the effect of the audience rather than for the silent response. With this in mind, most plays written deal with topics that are timely.
Dialogues
It refers to the word choices made by the playwright and the enunciation of the actors delivering the lines. Language and dialogues delivered by the characters moves the plot and action along, provides exposition, defines the distinct characters. Thus, in short, the dialogues also provide the substance of a play.
Stagecraft
The stage creates its effects in spite of, and in part because of, definite physical limitations. Setting and action tend to be suggestive rather than panoramic or colossal. Both setting and action may be little more than hints for the spectator to fill out.
Convention
This is the starting point of the theatrical performance. This element is considered as the domain of the playwright in theatre. It is the pure process by which the playwright`s work is brought to realization by the director, actors, designers, technicians, dancers, musicians and any other collaborators that come together on the script, scenario, or plan. This is the works in progress stage.
Genres
There are different genres of plays, which are divided into the categories of tragedy, comedy, melodrama, and tragicomedy. Each of these genre/forms can be further subdivide by style and content.
Tragedy
Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude. The tragedy is presented in the form of action, which will arouse pity and fear in the audience as it witnesses the action. It allows for an arousal of this pity and fear and creates an affect of purgation or catharsis of these strong emotions by the audience. Tragedy is serious by nature in its theme and deals with profound problems. In classic tragedy and the modern problem play, tragedy is a play in which a central character faces, and is finally defeated by, some overwhelming threat or disaster. The hero or heroine is an active participant in the event through a tragic flaw, a shortcoming of the protagonist, i.e., pride, rashness, indecision.
This reinforces the emphasis on action derived from character, which explains the psychological and moral interest of much great drama. Another common type of tragedy focuses not on how the protagonist brings about but on how he meets his fate. Tragedy will involve the audience in the action and create tension and expectation. Tragedy so defined celebrates the triumph of the human spirit over physical necessity. With the climax and final end the audience will have learned a lesson and will leave the theatre not depressed or sullen, but uplifted and enlightened.
Comedy
Comedy should have the view of a "comic spirit" and is physical and energetic. Traditionally Indian comedy and humour is defined as a play that bestows on its characters good fortune, or more popularly, a happy ending. In comedy there is absence of pain and emotional reactions. Different kinds of comedy illustrate different ways a playwright may leaven grim truth with humor or temper the playful with the serious. There are situation comedies, romantic comedies, sentimental comedies, dark comedies, comedy of manners, and pure farce. The comic devices used by playwrights of comedy are: exaggeration, incongruity, surprise, repetition, wisecracks, and sarcasm. It may deal with the loves and jealousies of the young, and the reluctance other elders to give their blessings or the necessary funds. The behavior of the characters presented in comedy is ludicrous and sometimes absurd and the result in the audience is one of correction of behaviors.
Melodrama
Melodrama is drama of disaster and differs from tragedy significantly; the forces outside of the protagonist cause all of the significant events of the plot. All of the aspects of related guilt or responsibility of the protagonist are removed. The protagonist is usually a victim of circumstance. He is acted upon by the antagonist or anti-hero and suffers without having to accept responsibility and inevitability of fate. Melodrama has a sense of strict moral judgment, where all issues are resolved in a well-defined way. The good characters are rewarded and the bad characters are punished in a means that fits the crime.
Tragicomedy:
Tragicomedy is the most life like of all of the genres. It is non-judgmental and ends with no absolutes. It focuses on character relationships and shows society in a state of continuous flux. There is a mix of comedy and tragedy side by side in these types of plays.
Characters
These are the people presented in the play that are involved in the perusing plot. Each character has a distinct personality, age, appearance, beliefs, socio economic background and language in the play. A playwright`s success ultimately depends on his ability to create a character that an actor can "bring to life". Thus, the way an actor plays a role, using his/her acting skills to create a character in a drama, is known as characterization.
Music
It means the sound, rhythm and melody of the speeches. Music can encompass the rhythm of dialogue and speeches in a play or can also mean the aspects of the melody and music compositions as with musical theatre. Each theatrical presentation delivers music, rhythm and melody in its own distinctive manner. But, music can be included to mean all sounds in a production. Music can expand to all sound effects, the actor`s voices, songs, and instrumental music played as underscore in a play. In the aspects of the musical the songs are used to push the plot forward and move the story to a higher level of intensity. Composers and lyricist work together with playwrights to strengthen the themes and ideas of the play. Character`s wants and desires can be strengthened for the audience through lyrics and music.
Spectacle
The spectacle in the theatre can involve all of the aspects of visual elements of the production of a play; the scenery, costumes, and special effects in a production. The visual elements of the play created for theatrical event. The qualities determined by the playwright that create the world and atmosphere of the play for the audience`s eye. It also refers to the shaping of dramatic material, setting, or costumes in a specific manner. Each play will have its own unique and distinctive behaviors, dress, and language of the characters. The style of a playwright is shown in the choices made in the world of the play: the kinds of characters, time periods, settings, language, methods of characterization, use of symbols, and themes.
Dramatic Structure
It refers to the form of drama and the way the story is told, the way the characters play their parts, and/or the way the themes are explored. Dramatic structure involves the overall framework or method by which the playwright uses to organize the dramatic material and or action. It is important for playwrights to establish themes but the challenge comes in applying structure to the ideas and inspirations. Understanding basic principals of dramatic structure can be invaluable to the playwright. Most modern plays are structured into acts that can be further divided into scenes. The pattern most often used is a method by where the playwright sets up early on in the beginning scenes all of the necessary conditions and situations out of which the later conditions will develop. Generally the wants and desires of one character will conflict with another character. With this method the playwright establishes a pattern of complication, rising action, climax, and resolution. This is commonly known as cause to effect arrangement of incidents.
Contrast
The use of contrast in drama productions like stillness contrasted with activity, or silence contrasted with noise - is a useful way to focus the audience`s attention. A drama being played with no change of pace or rhythm, mostly fails to hold on to the audience`s interest, but can be brought to life with the use of contrasting sights and sounds. An example of such contrast could be in a courtroom drama.
Symbols
Dramas are produced to a great extent through the use of symbols - or representations - standing in for real things. Many of the following can be understood as symbols; like props, gestures, expressions, costume, lighting and setting.
Most commonly in most of the drams screened today, the audience will find a mixture of all the elements discussed above. Since many playwrights tend to utilize a bit of all the elements. But the examples cited above are plays demonstrating one predominant element almost to the exclusion of the others. Thus, artistic consideration in playwriting requires selection and arrangement. Art is skill acquired by experience, study, and clear observations. Before writing a play it is important to understand the medium for which one writes. Writing for the stage demands an understanding of two fundamentals: the essence of drama and the nature of theatre.
Few Great Theatre Personalities of Indian Theatre
“NATYA SHASTRA”BY “BHARATA MUNI”IS
THE OLDEST EVIDENCE OF INDIAN ARTS AND THEATRE
The Natya Shastra is the oldest surviving text on stagecraft in the world. It is believed to have been written by Bharata Muni between 200 AD and 200 BC. However there are scholars who believe that it may have been written by various authors at different times.The text is written in the Sanskrit language, and consists of 6,000 sutras, or verse stanzas, incorporated in 36 chapters. There are some passages that are composed in a prose form.Ten types of drama, ranging from one to ten acts, are described. The Natya Shastra, wide in its scope, covers stage-design, music, dance, makeup, and virtually every aspect of stagecraft. Bharata refers to bhavas and rasas, and stipulates that the plays should have a mingling of rasas and not be dominated by a single one.As the only text which gives all details about the music and instruments of the earlier period, Natya Shastra is of great relevance to musicians as well.
THE SANSKRIT TIMELINE & DRAMA
Nearly all Sanskrit literature, except that dealing with grammar and philosophy, is in verse. The first period (c.500–c.50 B.C.) of the Sanskrit age is one of epics. They are divided into two main groupings—the natural epics, i.e., those derived from old stories, and those which come from artificial epics called kavya. The oldest and most representative of the natural school is the Mahabharata (məhä'bär`ətə), classical Sanskrit epic of India, probably composed between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200, while the oldest and best-known of the artificial epics is the Ramayana (rämä`yənə) [story of Rama], classical Sanskrit epic of India, probably composed in the 3d cent. B.C. The Puranas, a group of 18 epics, didactic and sectarian in tone, are a direct offshoot of the Mahabharata.In the court epics (c.200 B.C.–c.A.D. 1100), most of which were derived from the Ramayana, subject matter gradually became subordinated to form, and elaborate laws were set up to regulate style. The lyric poems are artificial in technique and mainly stanzaic. The most common form, the sloka, developed from the Vedic anushtubh, a stanza of four octosyllabic lines. Part of the lyric poetry is comprised of gemlike miniatures, portraying emotion and describing nature; most of it is erotic. However, many lyrics are ethical in tone. These reflect the doctrine of the transmigration of souls or metempsychosis (mətĕm'səkō`sĭs) in a prevailing melancholy tone and stress the vanity of human life.
Sanskrit drama (c.A.D. 400–A.D. 1100) had its beginnings in those hymns of the Rig-Veda which contain dialogues. Staged drama probably derives from the dance and from religious ceremonial. It is characterized by the complete absence of tragedy; death never occurs on the stage. Other typical features are the alternation of lyrical stanzas with prose dialogue and the use of Sanskrit for some characters and Prakrit for others ( Prakrit literature. By the 6th cent. B.C. the people of India were speaking and writing languages that were much simpler than classical Sanskrit. These vernacular forms, of which there were several, are called the Prakrits [Skt.,=natural].
In Sanskrit drama the stories are borrowed from legend, and love is the usual theme. The play almost always opens with a prayer and is followed by a dialogue between the stage manager and one of the actors, referring to the author and the play. There were no theaters, so the plays were performed in the concert rooms of palaces. The most famous drama was the Sakuntalam Kalidasa (kä'lĭdä`sə), fl. 5th cent.?, Indian dramatist and poet.Other major dramatists were Bhasa, Harsa, and Bhavabhuti ( Asian drama, dramatic works produced in the East. Of the three major Asian dramas—Sanskrit, Chinese, Japanese—the oldest is Sanskrit, although the dates of its origin are uncertain.
There is a didactic quality in all of Sanskrit literature, but it is most pronounced in fairy tales and fables (c.A.D. 400–A.D. 1100). Characteristically, different stories are inserted within the framework of a single narration. The characters of the tale themselves tell stories until there are many levels to the narrative. The Panchatantra (pŭn'chətŭn`trə) is the most important work in this style. The sententious element reached its height in the Hitopadesa, which was derived from the Panchatantra.
SANSKRIT PLAYWRIGHT
The earliest available Sanskrit plays are the thirteen ascribed to Bhasa. None of them states explicitly either in the prologue or the colophon. These are the usual conventions in Sanskrit drama. These are Bhasa`s work. In fact, their discovery and attribution to him at the beginning of the twentieth century created a controversy. However, striking thematic and technical similarities in them and the certain identification of Swapna-Vasavadatta i.e. `Vasavadatta in the Dream` with Bhasa, established their authorship. The plays embrace tales derived from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Krishna lore, popular history, and love stories. They are marked by significant possibilities of performatory elaboration, as evident to this day from their presence in the traditional repertoire of Kutiyattam. Kalidasa was the greatest Indian dramatist. He drew inspiration from Bhasa, but himself became the paramount influence on future generations. Regarded as the supreme poet of love with the highest possible refinement and insight, he attained the culmination of genius in the world-renowned Abhijnana-Sakuntala. If Bhasa sometimes appears to rebel against the conventions lay down by Bharata, Kalidasa offers the model of the Natyashastric tradition of playwriting.
Music was an integral part of theatre. This becomes prominent in order to provide pleasure in the recitation of the text. Bharata, Kalidasa, and some later dramatists speak of the employment of dhruva songs. Certainly, musical integration began with the introduction oigita or song and atodya or music. This served not only to determine the pace and rhythm of movement, gait, exits, and entrances, but also to incorporate lasyangas into the play. The change in Sanskrit theatre from rupakas to uparupakas is marked by the increasing use of music. The tendency was already present in the period of Kalidasa and Harivamsa, and gathered momentum with the passage of time. Music became more essential and uparupakas were often called sangitakas i.e. `song works`. Dance, too, acquired a more dominant place in the dramatic and theatrical structure. References in Abhinavagupta`s Abhinavabharati, Saradatanaya`s Bhavaprakasana and other texts verify this conclusion. The connection between `folk` forms and Sanskrit performance is also old. The detailed stage direction in Kalidasa`s Vikramorvasiya i.e. `Urvasi Won by Valour` was a unique play from this point of view. This reveals extensive employment of music and dance in production. Many of the terms are not traceable either to the Natyashastra or later treatises. They appear to have been taken from the popular theatre of the early medieval age, and prove that Kalidasa`s script had an unbroken tradition of performance up to that period.
Influence on Sanskrit theatre
Asvaghosha, a Buddhist author adorning the court of Kanishka represents another ideology in Sanskrit drama. From available fragments of his work, it can be gathered that his subject matter was conversion to Buddhism, Sudraka in Mricchakatika achieves astonishing heights of treatment given to contemporary social realities. His vibrant masterpiece offers a refreshing and subversive notion of love between a generous but poor Brahman and a delicate courtesan inspired by romantic ideals. In the background a cruel ruler, the struggling common people, the air of revolt, gamblers, monks, helpless judiciary, and prevailing fraud can be seen. On the other hand, Visakhadatta derived material from history in Mudra-Rakshasa i.e. `Rakshasa`s Signet Ring`. This is an unusual play of political intrigue between Chandragupta Maurya`s minister Kautilya and Rakshasa i.e. the minister of the ousted king. The three plays of Harsha have been said to reveal Buddhist compassion and introduce models of romantic drama neatly structured in keeping with the plot technique taught in the Natyashastra. In addition, traces of folk music and dance in his Ratnavali mark the beginning of a new era in Sanskrit theatre. Bhatta Narayana develops the tragic character of Asvatthama in Venisamhara i.e. `Tying of the Braid`. This was based on the story in the Mahabharata. The powerful Bhavabhuti during seventh to eighth century is often considered Kalidasa`s equal, and his play Uttara-Ramacarita i.e. `Rama`s Later Exploits` also contains strong evocation of karuna rasa or pathos. Replete with epic qualities, it presents life in diverse dimensions.
BOUNDRIES OF SANSKRIT THEATRE
The Sanskrit plays were limited by certain conventions. Tragedy was taboo and the end was always happy. There was no place for plays that raised controversies (although Bhasa had shown death on the stage in one of his plays). The basic plot in most Sanskrit plays centre around the hero who struggles for (and finally obtains) the object of his desire. The realisation of this goal in closely entwined with the three ends of Hindu life - duty, pleasure and wealth. Thus there was an opening, progression, development, pause and conclusion. Unlike French and German neo-classical plays, both time and place were flexible.Within these parameters however, it appears that most playwrights found enough space for exerting their individualistic creative expression.
Sanskrit plays commenced with an elaborate ritual. Some twenty pre-play ceremonies (purva-ranga) of music and dance were performed, nine of them behind the curtain. The Sutradhara (he was the director, the chief actor and the stage manager), clad in immaculate white, entered with his two assistants and offered worship (Puja) to the presiding deity of the theatre to ensure success to the producer and good luck to the actors. After this the Sutradhara summoned the leading actress and opened the play with a prologue which announced the time and place of the play and introduced the playwright.
The theatre halls were carefully constructed and decorated according to traditional rules of architecture.A theatre of medium size, according to Bharata, could accommodate 400 spectators.Some of the stages had two storeys, the upper storey being for the representation of action in the celestial sphere and the ground storey for that in the terrestrial sphere.Masks were not used, and the subtlest interplay of emotions was conveyed through facial expressions, gestures and speech. The adroit employment of the curtain made for heightened impact. The choice of themes covered a wide range and the treatment of the theme also varied greatly. Skits, comedies and intense melodramas were all written and presented.The absence of scenic effects was made up by a versatile histrionic technique.
Sanskrit theatre was characterised by its high degree of refinement in performance technique. It followed well-articulated, aesthetic principles, usually those laid out in the ancient dramatics texts. It depended on a high degree of audience knowledge and expertise i.e., only the refined sensibility could appreciate it. Religion played an important role in drama as certain rituals accompanied most plays, and even the stage was consecrated before a performance. Thus the Sanskrit drama could be called an amalgamation of the religious, educational and entertaining elements or in whole we can say ,Sanskrit theatre was holistic, consisting of a highly evolved text, pre-written as well as orally circulating among the community of artists. The rediscovery of the Natyashastra and Bhasa excited scholars and artists in Sanskrit dramatic performance, nearly extinct in the twentieth century.
FOLK THEATRE IN INDIA
This was the second phase of the evolution of theatre in India, which was based on oral traditions. This form of theatre was being performed from about 950 AD onwards up to 1700 AD and continued further until today in almost every part of India. Emergence of this kind of theatre is linked with the change of political set up in India as well as the coming into existence of different regional languages in all parts of the country. The classical theatre was based on Natya Shastra was much more sophisticated in its form and nature and totally urban-oriented. On the contrary, the traditional theatre evolved out of rural roots and was more simple, immediate and closer to the rural milieu.
Historically speaking, it was during the 14.5-16 century that the folk theatre emerged forcefully in different regions. It used different languages, the languages of the regions in which it emerged. Initially these were purely devotional in tenor and typically revolved around religion, local legends and mythology. Later, with changing times it became more secular in content and began to focus on folk stories of romance and valour and biographical accounts of local heroes.
Indian folk theatre can be broadly divided into two broad categories -- religious and secular -- giving rise to the Ritual Theatre and Theatre of Entertainment respectively. The two forms thrived together, mutually influencing each other. Although they are considered as Folk theatre traditions, some of them have all the attributes of a classical theatre.Most often the folk and traditional forms are mainly narrative or vocal, i.e. singing and recitation-based like Ramlila, Rasleela, Bhand Nautanki and Wang, without any complicated gestures or movements and elements of dance. India is also rich in ballad-singing traditions such as Pabuji-ki-phar of Rajastan and Nupipaalaa of Manipur.
While most of these theatrical styles have their own unique form dependent on their local customs, they differ from one another in execution, staging, costume, make-up and acting style, although there are some broad similarities. The south Indian forms emphasise on dance forms like Kathakali and Krishnattam of Kerala and actually qualify as dance dramas, while the north Indian forms emphasise on songs, like the Khyal of Rajasthan, the Maach of Madhya Pradesh, the Nautanki of Uttar Pradesh and the Swang of Punjab. The Jatra of Bengal, Tamasha of Maharashtra and the Bhavai of Gujarat stress on dialogues in their execution, the latter two emphasise on comedy and satire. Puppet theatre also flourished at many places in India. Shadow (Gombeyatta of Karnataka, Ravana Chhaya of Orissa), Glove (Gopalila of Orissa, Pavai Koothu of Tamil Nadu), Doll (Bommalattam of Tamil Nadu and the Mysore State and Putul Nautch of Bengal) and string puppets (Kathputli of Rajasthan and Sakhi Kundhei of Orissa) are some of the popular forms in vogue.
Dramatic art can also be found in some of the solo forms of Indian classical dance, like Bharat Natyam, Kathak, Odissi and Mohiniattam, and folk dances like the Gambhira and Purulia Chhau of Bengal, Seraikella Chhau of Bihar and Mayurbhanj Chhau of Orissa. Dramatic content is even woven into the ritual ceremonies in some areas, particularly those of Kerala, with its Mudiyettu and Teyyam.
THEATRE OF ENTERTAINMENT
This form of folk theatre has secular themes ranging from romance, love and valour to social and cultural traditions. Its sole purpose was to provide entertainment for the masses. Nautanki, Tamasha and Jatra are some examples.
Bhavai : Bhavai is the popular folk theatrical form of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The pioneer of Bhavai was a Brahmin known as Asait Thakore or Ashram Maharaja, who lived in a village of Gujarat called Unjha. Initially, the Bhavai performance was presented as a religious ritual to propitiate the Goddess Amba and it took place only during the religious festivals of Navratra. Very soon it got converted as an important form of the theatre of entertainment. The Bhavai has a series of playlets known as Vesha or Swanga. Each Vesha has its own plot and locale. There need not be any continuity of homogeneity among them. The Veshas has four broad category of themes i.e. mythological, social, royal Rajput and contemporary. The Veshas of Krishna and Gopi, the Veshas Zanda-Zulana and Chhela-Vatau, the Vesha of Ramdev and the Veshas of Vanazaro and Purabio are examples of each of these categories. Asait Thakore wrote over 360 Veshas. The music is a combination of classical tunes rendered in folk style. The musical instruments used are Bhungala, Jhanjha and Tabla. Dancing is an indispensable feature of the plays and has its own style, which is quite different from other dances of Gujarat. The dance, which is a combination of Rasa and Garba with traces of Kathak, is used as a connecting link between Veshas and also between different incidents within one Vesha. The performers are called Bhavayas. Till the 20th century the men played female roles. The Sutradhara or anchor of the Bhavai is known as Nayaka who sings, acts and directs. He is also the producer of the performance. As a folk dramatic form, Bhavai is specially known for its social plays, which are full of humour. It is not merely a theatre form to be seen, but an atmosphere to be experienced with the players themselves. The Bhavai of Rajasthan is more musical and less theatrical when compared to that of Gujarat.
Daskathia and Chhaiti Ghoda: Daskathia is one of the several narrative forms that flourished in Orissa. It is a performance in which a devotee narrates a story dramatically to the accompaniment of a wooden musical instrument called kathia. This is a performance of two narrators, Gayaka (chief singer) and Palia (assistant) who is the co-narrator. The Chhaiti Ghoda troupe of performers comprises of two players on the musical instruments dhol and mohuri and three other characters. A dummy horse is improvised out of bamboo and cloth and the dancer enters into the hollow body and dances, while the main singer along with co-singer delivers discourses, mainly from mythology.
Gondhal: In Maharashtra, the dramatic narration of mythological stories, hero-lauds and folk legends form a part of a ritual dedicated to various deities. This interesting ritual with its narrative performance has deeply influenced the dramatic and narrative traditions in Maharashtra and its neighbouring regions.
Garodas: In Gujarat the members of the Garoda community practice the art of narrating stories with the help of painted pictures. It is performed with a paper scroll with pictures painted in water-colours one below the other and separated with a thick black line.
Jatra (Yatra): The popular folk drama form of Eastern India is the Yatra or Jatra, as it is known in Bengal. It assumes different forms in different regions within the eastern parts of India, which include mainly the states of Assam, West Bengal and Orissa. Yatra literally means a procession or a pilgrimage from one point to another. It is generally an open-air performance. Jatra originated in Bengal as a ritual theatre devoted mainly on themes relating to the life of Lord Krishna. The illustrious Vaishnava saint and religious performer Chaitanya used the medium of Jatra to propagate his teachings of Krishna by inspiring his devotees to participate in communal singing and dancing. Apart from the exploits of Krishna, the Jatras dramatised the Puranic legends, folk-tales and episodes from Ramayana and Mahabharata. In West Bengal, famous playwrights or palas attempted to bring structural perfection to the Jatra. These palas were called by various names like Rama Jatra, Shiva Jatra and Chandi Jatra. Later Jatra adopted more secular themes and historical romances, love stories and even patriotic themes during the freedom struggle were added to the repertoire. The most famous was Bidya Sundar, which started a new trend in Jatra. In Orissa, a unique form of Yatra known as Sahi Yatra is performed in the by-lanes of Puri as a kind of street theatre. Jatra today is one of the most popular folk theatres in India. West Bengal alone has to its credit 300 Jatra companies, and Jatra competitions are held during the Durga Puja festival.
Kariyila: This is the most interesting and popular folk drama form of Himachal Pradesh. It is most popular in the districts of Shimla, Solan and Sirmour. The season of Kariyala generally starts after the festival of Deepavali. Kariyala is an open-air theatre, which consists of an entertaining series of small playlets, farces, skits, revues and burlesques. It is generally staged during village fairs and on some festive occasions. The Kariyala entertainment starts in the evening and goes on throughout the night staging various popular items one after other. The square-performing arena is called Khada. In the centre of Khada, a bonfire is lit which is considered very sacred. A number of musical instruments like chimta, nagara, karnal, ranasingha, shahanai, basuri, dholak and khanjiri are used to provide background music.
Keertan: Keertan is the most popular narrative form which is prevalent in almost all parts of the country under different names such as Katha Kalakshepam and Harikatha. Keertan means to laud, extol, exalt, worshipping of the deity by chanting his praises and celebrating the praises of god with music and singing.
Khyal: It is a popular folk dramatic form of Rajasthan and is full of dancing, singing and music. Khyal has assumed different names in different regions of Rajasthan. It is also known as Tamasha, Rammat, Nautanki, Maach and Swang.
Maanch:
Maanch is an enchanting folk opera of Malwa region in the state of Madhya Pradesh. It evolved about two centuries ago in Ujjain. The themes are usually based on mythological events or romantic folk tales.
Nachya: It is an interesting folk theatre form of Madhya Pradesh, the urbanised version of which reached the metropolitan centres and became quite popular. The play begins with an invocation song sung in honour of Lord Ganesha, Saraswati and other deities venerated by the local folk. There are two types of Nachya theatre. One is the humorous Gammat Skit and the other one is the Jokkad Pari performance.
Nautanki: Nautanki is an offshoot of the Swang or Sang. It is very popular in Haryana and other parts of North India.
Oja-Pali: Oja-Pali of Assam is a very interesting form of story telling which utilises many dramatic techniques to illustrate the narrative and enhance its visual impact. This art form is associated with the worship of Manasa, the serpent goddess of Assam. The performers take many days to narrate the story, which is divided into three parts: Deva Khanda, Baniya Khanda and Bhatiyali Khanda. The Oja is the main narrator-singer and the Palis are his associates or members of his chorus. There is yet another type of Oja-Pali parties in Assam, known as the Vyah-Gowa Oja-Pali, which narrates stories from the Assamese version of Puranas and the epics.
Pandavani:It is a form of story telling evolved by the tribals of the Chhatisgarh region of Madhya Pradesh to amuse and instruct the people. This narrative form was developed to tell the story of the five Pandava brothers and considered to be of two types - Kapilak and Vedamati. A team of Pandavani performers is composed of one main narrator-singer, one or two co-singers, who also play on musical instruments like tabla and harmonium. Pandavani is a performance of a story, which did not quite develop into a regular dramatic form.
Picture Showmen: The Picture Showman in ancient India was known as Mankha, and this art of narrating the story with the help of pictures was known as Mankha Vidha. This art dates back to 6th century BC.
Powada: In Maharashtra the narrative hero-laud is called Powada. The first available Powada in Marathi was written on the thrilling episode of Shivaji killing his adversary Afzal Khan. The tradition of Powada singing was kept alive by the folk singers of Maharashtra known as Gondhalis and Shahirs. The Powada is presented in a most dramatic manner. High pitch singing and melodramatic acting is its soul.
Swang: The major theatrical tradition of folk entertainment in North India, especially Haryana, is that of Swang. It is a musical folk drama which enacts near similar stories in all its related regional variations. These stories are in verse and are sung in different classical, semi-classical but mostly in popular folk musical modes. A number of musical instruments like the ektara, dholak, kharta, sarangi and harmonium put flavour to the dialogues. Ali Baksh of Rewari, who is regarded as 'the father of folk theatre in Haryana', is the pioneer of the Swang tradition. Pandit Deep Chand, known as the "Kalidasa of Haryana", modified and polished Ali Baksh style of folk theatre. Other luminaries of Swang include Swami Har Dev, Qutabi, Dhoom, Pandit Bhartu and Pandit Lakshmi Chand.
Tamasha: Tamasha evolved itself from the earlier forms of folk entertainment in Maharashtra. It is known for its humour and erotic singing and dancing. It is one of the rare folk theatre forms of India in which women play the feminine roles. Naughty episodes of Krishna Leela are invariably enacted in the opening part of a Tamasha play. The Lavani songs, which are sung along with dancing, are delightfully naughty and erotic.
Villu Pattu: Villu Pattu literally means bow-song. This form of recitation (using a bow-shaped musical instrument) of Tamil Nadu developed in the 15th century. There are seven to eight persons in a bow-song party who form a kind of chorus that supports the main singer-narrator. The stories from Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas are told in these ballad style songs.
Modern Theatre of India
Modern Theatre in India is fighting with rural and cultural values. In India , Modern theatre is run by educated and well trained drama experts but they carry their old rural tradition with them because most of them belong to rural land . that’s why some time it looks great and others very imatuare. So called Modern theatre was created by & primarily for the middle class & upper middle class of urban society. The plays run the gamut from serious to comic, political to frivolous . Modern Theatre in India owes its origin to development of large urban centers such as Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay (Mumbai) & Madras(Chennai).Nowadays most of the metro cities have adopted this modern theatre style of presentation. Modern theatre also entertains English literature in a big way. the elite audiences of this taste always like to see these texts.The modern theatre of today boasts a number of unique characteristics , including commercial ventures, various grades and qualities of amateur work, limited attempts at experimentation, & determined effort to establish and sustain school and college theatre programs.
AMATEUR
Most of India's modern theatre may be categorized as amateur; that is theatre in which majority of those who participate do so with little expectation of earning a living. Theatre organisations are either autonomous bodies or they are a part of larger cultural organisations.. The Indian National Theatre is a cosmopolitan theatre organization sponsoring theatre productions in Marathi , Gujrati, Hindi & English. One of the largest running plays in the history of Bombay theatre has been the Gujrati version of Pygmalion called Punarani. Hindi theatre has much smaller base , but some of the nationally known personalities have tried to nurture the Hindi theatre . Prithiviraj Raj , famous film actor was a pioneer through his Prithvi Theatre in nurturing Hindi theatre . Ebrahim Alkazi organized Theatre Group in 1953. English Theatre in Bombay has a long & impressive history. Alyquee Padmsee is one of the leading directors of English theatre & believes that with increasing number of English speaking people there is now a greater demand.For a city of its size Delhi has little amateur theatre. There are more groups of Punjabi & Hindi , since there are large number of people speaking these two North Indian Languages.
Experimental Theatre in India
Experimental theatre in India may be considered a branch of the amateur theatre , but in some instances the objectives of the groups and their approach to producing plays are quite different from that of the general run of amateur groups . Calcutta has the reputation of being the foremost center of experimental theatre in the country.Few Famous directors like Ebrahim Alkazi, Girish Karnard, Utpal Dutt, B.V. Karnath, Robin Das, Berry John, Prasanna, Badal Sircar , Bansi Kaul, M.K. Raina , Habib Tanvir, etc are the unofficial leader of experimental theatre in India. The playwright Mohan Rakesh, till his death in 1972 ran an experimental workshop in New Delhi which attempted to break new ground for the production of unconventional, nonrealistic plays in Hindi. His group of enthusiastic young people attempted to develop productions with a focus on physical movement, gesture & sounds rather than be ruled by the dictates of the script. Unlike the lines which are clearly drawn in Calcutta & Mumbai between amateur theatre & the experimental theatre , it is more difficult in to make the distinction in Delhi. As the capital of the country, Delhi audiences have been privileged to witness a host of performances of traditional rural theatre , often presented in quasi- authentic settings, as well as tours by theatre groups from around the world. In this respect, unique theatre which stresses unconventional means of production has found its way into the theatre life of the capital
Play Writting
In the modern Western Theatre , the text usually serves as the guide to the production concept. Modern Indian theatre is similar to Western theatre in this respect, it depends on the creative interpretation of the play script . It usually requires a working combination of playwrights, directors & actors to produce modern theatre. Realism seems to dominate the settings & dialogue of most plays. Many playwrights today are writing few great texts, like we have recently seen a play written by Rajan Tiwari named” EK BUDHA DIN” at jaipur ,was full of experiments and great challenge of text for an actor. Some of other playwrights also, who have created a niche for themselves in the Indian theatre in past ,are Utpal Dutt, Girish Karnard, Badal Sircar , Vijay Tendulkar, C.L. Jos, N.N. Pillai etc.
ASSENTIAL ELEMENTS / COLORS IN INDIAN DRAMA
Drama on stage often reflects the drama of everyday life, but it also concentrates life, focuses it, and holds it up for examination. Aristotle outlined some elements of drama in his critical analysis of the classical Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex written by the Greek playwright, Sophocles, in the 5th century B.C. The elements involve: Thought, Theme, Ideas; Action or Plot; Characters; Language; Music; and Spectacle. Since plays are written with the intention of performance, the reader of the play must use her imagination to enact the play as she reads it.
Readers of the play need to imagine not just feelings or a flow of action, but how the action and the characters look in a theatre, on a stage, before a live audience. Thus, there are many elements that make up a drama. Right from the theme, plot of the play, till the costumes, dramatic representation to the audience that actually makes the drama a success by viewing it! Thus, let us study the elements that encompass the making of a drama.
Theme
It refers to what the play means as opposed to what happens (plot) or it refers to the main idea/ though/ theme within the play. Sometimes the theme is clearly stated in the title. It may be stated through dialogue by a character acting as the playwright`s voice. Or it may be the theme is less obvious and emerges only after some study or thought. The abstract issues and feelings that grow out of the dramatic action.
Plot
It refers to the order of the events that happen in a play. In actuality it refers to what happens rather than what it means. The plot is usually structured with acts and scenes and the action and movement in the play begins from the initial entanglement, through rising action, climax, and falling action to resolution. The interest generated by the plot varies for different kinds of plays. The plot of the drama is shown in the `through-line` of the drama - its beginning, middle and end - although it does not have to be presented in a linear structure. The characters in a play are also part of the plot. The action of the drama consists in the events that the characters take part in as they act the play. The content of the drama lies in the themes it deals with, example bullying, the responsibilities of power and the bravery of ordinary people.
Audience
Theatre requires an audience, since live audience also has an important impact on the way plays are created. The physical presence of an audience can change a performance, inspire actors, and create expectations. The presence of live actors on the stage in front of live audiences sets it apart from modern day films and television. The presence of live actors on the stage in front of live audiences sets it apart from modern day films and television. Hence, authors calculate for the effect of the audience rather than for the silent response. With this in mind, most plays written deal with topics that are timely.
Dialogues
It refers to the word choices made by the playwright and the enunciation of the actors delivering the lines. Language and dialogues delivered by the characters moves the plot and action along, provides exposition, defines the distinct characters. Thus, in short, the dialogues also provide the substance of a play.
Stagecraft
The stage creates its effects in spite of, and in part because of, definite physical limitations. Setting and action tend to be suggestive rather than panoramic or colossal. Both setting and action may be little more than hints for the spectator to fill out.
Convention
This is the starting point of the theatrical performance. This element is considered as the domain of the playwright in theatre. It is the pure process by which the playwright`s work is brought to realization by the director, actors, designers, technicians, dancers, musicians and any other collaborators that come together on the script, scenario, or plan. This is the works in progress stage.
Genres
There are different genres of plays, which are divided into the categories of tragedy, comedy, melodrama, and tragicomedy. Each of these genre/forms can be further subdivide by style and content.
Tragedy
Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude. The tragedy is presented in the form of action, which will arouse pity and fear in the audience as it witnesses the action. It allows for an arousal of this pity and fear and creates an affect of purgation or catharsis of these strong emotions by the audience. Tragedy is serious by nature in its theme and deals with profound problems. In classic tragedy and the modern problem play, tragedy is a play in which a central character faces, and is finally defeated by, some overwhelming threat or disaster. The hero or heroine is an active participant in the event through a tragic flaw, a shortcoming of the protagonist, i.e., pride, rashness, indecision.
This reinforces the emphasis on action derived from character, which explains the psychological and moral interest of much great drama. Another common type of tragedy focuses not on how the protagonist brings about but on how he meets his fate. Tragedy will involve the audience in the action and create tension and expectation. Tragedy so defined celebrates the triumph of the human spirit over physical necessity. With the climax and final end the audience will have learned a lesson and will leave the theatre not depressed or sullen, but uplifted and enlightened.
Comedy
Comedy should have the view of a "comic spirit" and is physical and energetic. Traditionally Indian comedy and humour is defined as a play that bestows on its characters good fortune, or more popularly, a happy ending. In comedy there is absence of pain and emotional reactions. Different kinds of comedy illustrate different ways a playwright may leaven grim truth with humor or temper the playful with the serious. There are situation comedies, romantic comedies, sentimental comedies, dark comedies, comedy of manners, and pure farce. The comic devices used by playwrights of comedy are: exaggeration, incongruity, surprise, repetition, wisecracks, and sarcasm. It may deal with the loves and jealousies of the young, and the reluctance other elders to give their blessings or the necessary funds. The behavior of the characters presented in comedy is ludicrous and sometimes absurd and the result in the audience is one of correction of behaviors.
Melodrama
Melodrama is drama of disaster and differs from tragedy significantly; the forces outside of the protagonist cause all of the significant events of the plot. All of the aspects of related guilt or responsibility of the protagonist are removed. The protagonist is usually a victim of circumstance. He is acted upon by the antagonist or anti-hero and suffers without having to accept responsibility and inevitability of fate. Melodrama has a sense of strict moral judgment, where all issues are resolved in a well-defined way. The good characters are rewarded and the bad characters are punished in a means that fits the crime.
Tragicomedy:
Tragicomedy is the most life like of all of the genres. It is non-judgmental and ends with no absolutes. It focuses on character relationships and shows society in a state of continuous flux. There is a mix of comedy and tragedy side by side in these types of plays.
Characters
These are the people presented in the play that are involved in the perusing plot. Each character has a distinct personality, age, appearance, beliefs, socio economic background and language in the play. A playwright`s success ultimately depends on his ability to create a character that an actor can "bring to life". Thus, the way an actor plays a role, using his/her acting skills to create a character in a drama, is known as characterization.
Music
It means the sound, rhythm and melody of the speeches. Music can encompass the rhythm of dialogue and speeches in a play or can also mean the aspects of the melody and music compositions as with musical theatre. Each theatrical presentation delivers music, rhythm and melody in its own distinctive manner. But, music can be included to mean all sounds in a production. Music can expand to all sound effects, the actor`s voices, songs, and instrumental music played as underscore in a play. In the aspects of the musical the songs are used to push the plot forward and move the story to a higher level of intensity. Composers and lyricist work together with playwrights to strengthen the themes and ideas of the play. Character`s wants and desires can be strengthened for the audience through lyrics and music.
Spectacle
The spectacle in the theatre can involve all of the aspects of visual elements of the production of a play; the scenery, costumes, and special effects in a production. The visual elements of the play created for theatrical event. The qualities determined by the playwright that create the world and atmosphere of the play for the audience`s eye. It also refers to the shaping of dramatic material, setting, or costumes in a specific manner. Each play will have its own unique and distinctive behaviors, dress, and language of the characters. The style of a playwright is shown in the choices made in the world of the play: the kinds of characters, time periods, settings, language, methods of characterization, use of symbols, and themes.
Dramatic Structure
It refers to the form of drama and the way the story is told, the way the characters play their parts, and/or the way the themes are explored. Dramatic structure involves the overall framework or method by which the playwright uses to organize the dramatic material and or action. It is important for playwrights to establish themes but the challenge comes in applying structure to the ideas and inspirations. Understanding basic principals of dramatic structure can be invaluable to the playwright. Most modern plays are structured into acts that can be further divided into scenes. The pattern most often used is a method by where the playwright sets up early on in the beginning scenes all of the necessary conditions and situations out of which the later conditions will develop. Generally the wants and desires of one character will conflict with another character. With this method the playwright establishes a pattern of complication, rising action, climax, and resolution. This is commonly known as cause to effect arrangement of incidents.
Contrast
The use of contrast in drama productions like stillness contrasted with activity, or silence contrasted with noise - is a useful way to focus the audience`s attention. A drama being played with no change of pace or rhythm, mostly fails to hold on to the audience`s interest, but can be brought to life with the use of contrasting sights and sounds. An example of such contrast could be in a courtroom drama.
Symbols
Dramas are produced to a great extent through the use of symbols - or representations - standing in for real things. Many of the following can be understood as symbols; like props, gestures, expressions, costume, lighting and setting.
Most commonly in most of the drams screened today, the audience will find a mixture of all the elements discussed above. Since many playwrights tend to utilize a bit of all the elements. But the examples cited above are plays demonstrating one predominant element almost to the exclusion of the others. Thus, artistic consideration in playwriting requires selection and arrangement. Art is skill acquired by experience, study, and clear observations. Before writing a play it is important to understand the medium for which one writes. Writing for the stage demands an understanding of two fundamentals: the essence of drama and the nature of theatre.
Few Great Theatre Personalities of Indian Theatre
| Bharat Muni India | Kali Das India | Bhartendu Harishchandra Uttar Pradesh |
| Baiju Bawra Punjab | Hira Bai Mharastra | Waris Shah Punjab |
| PremChand (Written Few Plays) | Rabindra Nath Tagore Bengal | Jai Shankar Prasad U P |
| Aaga Hashr Kashmiri J& K | Radhey Shyam Kathavachak U P | Prithviraj kapoor Pakistan Punjab India |
| Sohrab modi Pakistani Punjab India | Devika Rani U P | Pt. R K Shastri Gujrat |
| Uma bai Rajasthan | Lakhami Chand Of Haryana | Dada Saheb Phalke Maharastra |
| Ahindra Chaudhary of Bengal | Shambhu Mitra bengal | Naresh Mitra Bengal |
| Sisir Kr Bhaduri Bengal | Sushila Sundari Calcutta | D L Roy Bengal |
| Shambhu Mitra Bengal | Balraj Shani Pakistan Bengal India | Mohi Chatterji Bengal |
| Kazi Nazarul Islam Bengal | Meena Kumari U P Uttar Pradesh | Tota Ram of Agara wale U P Uttar Pradesh |
| Nataha Ram Gaur Uttar Pradesh | Mohammad Hassan Uttar Pradesh | Amanat UlIah Khan Hubab Uttar Pradesh |
| Jagdish Chandra Mathur Uttar Pradesh | Laxminarayan Mishra Uttar Pradesh | Mohammed Mujib Uttar Pradesh |
| Srikrishna Pahalwan Uttar Pradesh | Raunaq Banarai Uttar Pradesh | Reotisaran Sharma Uttar Pradesh |
| Shriram and Fatehkrishna Sharma Uttar Pradesh | Madhav Shukla Uttar Pradesh | Talib Banarasi Uttar Pradesh |
| Surendra Verma Uttar Pradesh | Karimuddin Murad Uttar Pradesh | Ahsan Syed Mehdi Hasan Uttar Pradesh |
| Master Fida Hussain Uttar Pradesh | Zohra Sehgal Uttar Pradesh | Gulab Bai Uttar Pradesh |
| Abaodullah Mod Hafiz Uttar Pradesh | Radheshyam Kathavachak Uttar Pradesh | Usha Ganguli Rajasthan |
| Ugamraj Khilari Rajasthan | Mohan Singh Maharishi Rajasthan | Giriraj Prasad Rajasthan |
| Harigovind Sharma Rajasthan | Pukhraj Gaud Rajasthan | Illa Arun Rajasthan |
| Laique Hussain Rajasthan | Irfan Rajasthan | Shikha ghosh Bengal |
| Satya Jeet Ray Bengal | Habib Tanvir Bhopal M P | Uttapal Dutt Bengal |
| Zohra sehgal Pakistan India Punjab | Pearl Padamsee Maharastra | Shivram karanth Karnatka |
| K V Akshra Kannada | Shankar nag Kannada | Purisai Duraisamy Kannappa Thambiran TamilBalamani Ammal Tamil |
| Nagerkoyil Sudalaimuthu Krishnan Tamil | Annadurai Tamil | Vadivel Arumugham Tamil |
| Balu Bhagavatar Tamil | Chikka Honnappa Bhagavathar Tamil | M. Krishnamurthy Thyagaraja Bhagavathar Tamil |
| Tripuraneni Ramaswamy Chaudari Tamil | Pammal Vijayaranga Sambandha Mudaliar Tamil | T. S. Rajamanikkam Tamil |
| Ramanujam Tamil | Cho` S. Ramaswamy Tamil | Purisai Natesa Thambiran Tamil |
| Tirupati Venkata Kavulu Tamil | Natesan Muthuswamy Tamil | K. B. Sundarambal Tamil |
| Indira Parthasarathy Tamil | Kalamandalam Gopi Tamil | R. S. Manohar Tamil |
| C. Kanniah Tamil | V. T. Aravindaksha Menon Kerala | Kavalam Narayana Panikkar Kerala |
| C. V. Raman Pillai Kerala | C I. Parameswaran Pillai Kerala | K. T. Mohamed Kerala |
| Omchery Kerala | Kunchu Kurup Kerala | Pattikkantodi Ramunni Menon Kerala |
| G. Sankara Pillai Kerala | Kainikkara Kumara Pillai Kerala | Kainikkara Padmanabha Pillai Kerala |
| E. V. Krishna Pillai Ponkunnam Varkey Kerala | Moozhikulam Kochukuttan Chakyar Kerala | Kalamandalam Padmanabhan Nair Kerala |
| Kottarakkara Sridharan Nair Kerala | N. P. Chellappan Nair Kerala | P. J. Antony Kerala |
| Bharat Gopi Kerala | C. Sankaran Nair Kerala | Pazhoor Kunjan Marar Kerala |
| S L Puram Sadanandan South | Mohan Lal South | Ram Gopal Bajaj Bihar |
| Kedar Nath Sahoo Bihar | Satya Bandopadhyay Bihar | Mohan Chandra Barman Assam |
| Padmanath Gohain Barooah Assam | Dulal Roy Assam | Mitradev Mahan Adhikar Assam |
| Jyoti Prasad Agarwala Assam | Arun Sarma Assam | Phani Sarma Assam |
| Satya Prasad Barua Assam | Lakshminath Bezbaruah Assam | Swami hardev Haryana |
| Pandit Bhartu Haryana | Dhoom haryana | Qutabi, Haryana |
| Pandit Lakhmi Chand Haryana | Upendra Nath Ashk Punjab | Ajmer Singh Aulakh Punjab |
| Balwant Gargi Punjab | Manjft Pal Kaur Punjab | Gurdial Singh KhoslaPunjab |
| Saadat Hasan Manto Punjab india& Pakistan | Gurdial Singh Phul Punjab | Mohan Rakesh Punjab |
| Kirpa Sagar Punjab | Surjit Singh Sethi Punjab | Brij Lai Shastri Punjab |
| Atamjit Singh Punjab | Bawa Budh Singh Punjab | Gursharan Singh Punjab |
| Harcharan Singh Punjab | Harsaran Singh Punjab | Manohar Singh Punjab Himachal |
| Ishwar Chander Nanda Punjab | Balraj Sahni Punjab Bengal | Kapur Singh Ghuman Punjab |
| Kartar Singh Duggal Punjab | Sant Singh Sekhon Punjab | Mohan Upareti Uttarakhand |
| B M Shah Uttarakhand | Rajkumar Bhogen Singh manipur | Mayanglambam Biramangol manipur |
| Heisnam Kanhailal manipur | Sabitri Heisnam manipur | Geet Chandra Tongbra manipur |
| Arambam Somorendra manipur | Ratan Thiyam manipur | Thounaojam Kunjakishore Singh manipur |
| Girish Karnard, Kannada | Badal Sircar Bengal | Dina Nath Nadim J & K – Jammu & Kashmir |
| Bashir Ahmad Qadri J & K – Jammu & Kashmir | Pushkar Bhan J & K – Jammu & Kashmir | Shabir Mujahid J & K – Jammu & Kashmir |
| Avtar Krisha Rahbar J & K – Jammu & Kashmir | Som Nath Sadhu J & K – Jammu & Kashmir | Sajood Sailani J & K – Jammu & Kashmir |
| Narsingh Dev Jamwal J & K – Jammu & Kashmir | Jagan Nath Saqui J & K – Jammu & Kashmir | Ranjeet Kapoor Delhi |
| Shiela Bhatia Delhi | Amal Allana Maharastra | Vishnupant Pagnis Maharastra |
| Vishnupant Aundhkar Maharastra | Bal Gandharva Maharastra | Anandrao Mistry Painter and Baburao Mistry Painter Maharastra |
| Victoria Theatrical Company Maharastra | Roshen Alkazi Maharastra Maharastra | Dattatray Ramchandra Bhat Maharastra |
| Bira Bikram Dev Maharastra | Chhota Gandharva Maharastra | Jabbar Razak Patel Maharastra Maharastra |
| Chintamani Govind Pendse Maharastra | Nanasaheb Gopal Govind Phatak | Neelu Phule Maharastra |
| Dadi Dorab Pudumjee Maharastra | Motiram Gajanan Rangnekar Maharastra | Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar Maharastra |
| Govindrao Tembe Maharastra | Vijay Tendulkar Maharastra | Alyque Padamsee Maharastra |
| Mohan Agashe Maharastra | Satish Alekar Maharastra | Pravin Joshi and Sarita Joshi Maharastra |
| Rajarambhau Ramchandra Kadam Maharastra | Ashok Srivastava Maharastra | Uttara Baokar Maharastra |
| Bhakti Barve-lnamdar Maharastra | Dina Pathak (Gandhi) Maharastra | Cowasji Palanji Khatao Maharastra |
| Bhaskar Chandavarkar Maharastra | Bhargavram Vitthal Warerkar Maharastra | Satyabhamabai Pandharpurkar Maharastra |
| Keshavrao Vitthalra Bhonsle Maharastra | Ratnakar Matkai Maharastra | Alkazi Maharastra |
| Suresh Sharma Himachal | Naagi - Folk Theatre 200 years back himachal | Sri Gopal Ata Assam |
| Sri Ram Vijaya | Madhva Deva N E | Srimanta Sankardeva N E |
| Divija Bhusan Assam | Rghuveer Sahay Delhi | Ganga Prasad Vimal Delhi |
| Mahesh Dattani Maharastra | Ram Swarup Sharma Hindi Theatre | Khanchand Shamdas Daryani Hindi Theatre |
| Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi Hindi Theatre | Amarendra Nath Dutta Hindi Theatre | Hari Krishna Premi Hindi Theatre |
| Maharaj Krishna Raina Hindi Theatre | Rajinder Nath Hindi Theatre | Quasar Thakore Padamsee Hindi Theatre |
| Ramesh Mehta Hindi Theatre | Arvind Gaur Hindi Theatre | Yasin Khan Hindi Theatre |
| Mr & Mrs Bharati Hindi Theatre | N K Sharma Hindi Theatre | Amitabh Das Gupta Hindi Theatre |
| Nadeera Babbar Hindi Theatre | Rajan Tiwari Writer Hindi Theatre | Satyadev Dubey Madhya Pradesh |
| Mohammed Ashraf Munawwar Khan Madhya Pradesh | Ram Kumar Varma Madhya Pradesh | Manohar Singh Himachal Delhi |
| Anupam Kher Himachal Delhi | Surekha Sikari Delhi | Uttara baokar Maharastra Delhi |
| Rajesh Vivek U P Delhi | Naseeruddin Shah U P Delhi | Om Puri Punjab Delhi |
| Om Shiv Puri Delhi | Amrish Puri Punjab Delhi | Yashpal Punjab Delhi |
| KIrti Jain Delhi | Devender Raj Ankur Delhi | Raghuveer yadav Delhi |
| Vijay Tendulkar Maharastra | C.L. Jos Maharastra | N.N. Pillai South |
| Robin Das Orisa | Berry John U K Delhi | Prasanna Kannada |
| Bansi Kaul J&K Delhi | M.K. Raina J& K Delhi | Piyush Mishra Delhi |
Judul: THEATER / DRAMA - 5000 YEARS HISTORY OF INDIAN THEATRE
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Rating: 100% based on 99998 ratings. 5 user reviews.
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